Battleground Archives

The separation of the Roman Empire into Western and Eastern halves was a pivotal moment in history, marking the division of one of the most powerful civilizations of antiquity. This event occurred gradually over several centuries, culminating in the formal split in 395 AD. Understanding it, and its relations to the split of Christianity into the Catholic and the Orthodox spheres, is an important perspective of understanding todays society, cultures and conflicts.

The Roman Empire had become increasingly unwieldy due to its vast size and administrative complexities. Internal strife, economic troubles, and external pressures from barbarian invasions contributed to its fragmentation. In 286 AD, Emperor Diocletian initiated reforms aimed at stabilizing the empire. One of his key actions was the division of power into a system known as the Tetrarchy, where the empire was ruled by two senior emperors (Augusti) and two junior emperors (Caesars), each responsible for a geographic region.

The term barbarian originates from the Ancient Greek word βάρβαρος (bárbaros), which initially referred to people who did not speak Greek. It was a term used to describe foreigners, and the Greeks considered their language unintelligible, sounding like bar-bar (hence the term). It did not initially carry a negative connotation, it simply distinguished Greek speakers from non-Greek speakers.

In later periods, particularly during the Roman Empire, the term took on a more pejorative sense, describing people who were considered uncivilized, uncultured, or primitive compared to Greco-Roman society. The Romans used it to describe various groups they encountered and fought against, such as the Germanic tribes, Celts, and Huns.

This division helped to manage the empire more efficiently for a time, but it also sowed the seeds of its eventual split. In 324 AD, Emperor Constantine the Great reunited the empire under his sole rule and established Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul) as the new capital in the east, renaming it Constantinople in his honor.

After Constantine’s death, the empire was once again divided among his successors. In 395 AD, upon the death of Emperor Theodosius I, the empire was permanently divided into the Western Roman Empire, with its capital in Rome, and the Eastern Roman Empire, often referred to as the Byzantine Empire, with its capital in Constantinople.

The Western Roman Empire faced numerous challenges, including barbarian invasions, economic instability, and internal power struggles, leading to its eventual collapse in 476 AD when the last Western Roman Emperor, Romulus Augustulus, was deposed by the Germanic chieftain Odoacer.

In contrast, the Eastern Roman Empire, or Byzantine Empire, endured for nearly a thousand years after the fall of the West. It preserved much of the classical heritage of Rome and played a crucial role in shaping the history and culture of the medieval world, especially in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East. However, it too faced its own challenges, including invasions by various outside forces, internal conflicts, and ultimately fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453.

The word Ottoman is derived from the name of Osman I, who was the founder of the Ottoman Empire. Osman I was a Turkic tribal leader who established a small principality in northwestern Anatolia in the late 13th century. Over time, this principality grew into a powerful empire that eventually spanned three continents and lasted for over six centuries.

Battles

A number of battles were fought in the struggle by various stakeholders to gain power, along with political, social, and economic factors, contributing to the gradual separation of the Roman Empire into its Eastern and Western halves.

• Battle of the Margus (285 AD): Fought between the Roman Emperor Diocletian and the usurper Carinus, this battle resulted in the defeat and death of Carinus, solidifying Diocletian’s claim to the imperial throne and setting the stage for his subsequent reforms.
• Battle of the Milvian Bridge (312 AD): This battle between Constantine and Maxentius resulted in Constantine’s victory and consolidation of power over the Western Roman Empire. Constantine’s subsequent conversion to Christianity had profound implications for the Roman Empire.
• Battle of Cibalis also known as the Battle of Mursa (314 AD): Fought between the forces of the Roman Emperor Constantine the Great and the Roman Emperor Licinius, this battle was part of the civil war between the two rulers. Constantine emerged victorious, solidifying his control over the Western Roman Empire and setting the stage for his eventual reunification of the empire.
• Battle of the Save (316 AD): This battle between Constantine and Licinius ended in a decisive victory for Constantine, further weakening Licinius’s control over the Eastern Roman Empire.
• Battle of Adrianople (324 AD): Fought between Constantine and Licinius, this battle resulted in a victory for Constantine, leading to the reunification of the Roman Empire under his sole rule.
• Battle of Chrysopolis (324 AD): This pivotal battle marked the culmination of the civil war between Constantine and Licinius. Constantine decisively defeated Licinius, securing sole control over the Roman Empire. Following his victory, Constantine became the sole ruler of the reunited empire and initiated reforms that would impact the subsequent division of the empire after his death.
• Battle of Strasbourg (357 AD): While primarily a victory for the Western Roman Empire over the Alamanni, this battle exemplifies the ongoing struggle to defend the empire’s borders. The division of resources and attention between the eastern and western halves of the empire weakened its overall ability to withstand external threats.
• Battle of Adrianople (378 AD): Fought between the Eastern Roman Empire and the Visigoths, this battle resulted in a decisive defeat for the Eastern Roman Emperor Valens, leading to significant territorial losses and setting the stage for later conflicts.

The Visigoths initially inhabited the region north of the Danube River, in what is now modern-day Romania and Ukraine. They came into contact with the Roman Empire in the 3rd century AD.

• Battle of the Frigidus (394 AD): Fought between the forces of Theodosius I and the usurper Eugenius, this battle marked the defeat of Eugenius and solidified Theodosius’ control over the entire Roman Empire. However, it also weakened the Western Roman Empire, as Theodosius’ death in 395 AD led to the division of the empire between his two sons, Arcadius in the East and Honorius in the West.
• Sack of Rome (410 AD): Led by the Visigothic king Alaric, this event marked the first time in nearly 800 years that Rome had been captured by a foreign enemy, signaling the declining power and influence of the Western Roman Empire.
• Battle of the Catalaunian Plains (451 AD): Also known as the Battle of Chalons, this conflict was fought between the Western Roman Empire, led by the Roman general Flavius Aetius, and the Huns, led by Attila. While it did not directly lead to the separation of the empire, it was a significant battle that helped to halt the advance of the Huns into Western Europe.

The Huns were a nomadic confederation of Eurasian steppe tribes who emerged in Central Asia during the late 4th century AD. Originating from the region of modern-day Mongolia, they were known for their skilled horseback riding and military tactics. The Huns began migrating westward, putting pressure on neighboring peoples and triggering a series of migrations and conflicts across Europe and Asia. Led by leaders like Attila, they eventually established a powerful empire that posed a significant threat to the Roman Empire and other settled civilizations of the time.

• Fall of the Western Roman Empire (476 AD): Although not a single battle, the fall of the Western Roman Empire is considered a pivotal event in the separation of the empire. It culminated in the deposition of the last Western Roman Emperor, Romulus Augustulus, by the Germanic chieftain Odoacer, marking the end of Roman rule in the West.