Battleground Archives

World War I, which lasted from 1914 to 1918, can be roughly divided into several phases/domains. These reflect the evolving strategies, major battles, and changing dynamics of the conflict. The main countries involved were the:

Allies: United Kingdom, France, Russia, Italy (Initially part of the Triple Alliance but later joined the Allies), United States (Entered the war in 1917), Canada, Australia, New Zealand, India, Belgium, Serbia, Japan, Romania, Greece, Portugal, Montenegro, Brazil, and China.

Central Powers: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria.

Outbreak (1914)

World War I was triggered by a complex interplay of national interests, alliances, militarism, imperialism, and nationalism. An example is the nationalistic fervor in Serbia and other Balkan states particularly intense against the backdrop of their interactions with the empires that dominated them, such as Austria-Hungary. Another aspect is the competition for colonies and spheres of influence around the world that heightened tensions among the European powers such as Great Britain, France, Germany and others. A militarization among the great powers made the possibility of war more likely due to the availability of vast military resources and the military’s influence over public policy. To protect themselves, countries also formed complex alliances. These alliances promised mutual defense in the case of an attack, thus ensuring that a conflict between two countries could quickly involve others. The main alliances were the Triple Entente including France, Russia, and Britain. The other one was the Triple Alliance with Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy (even though Italy never went to war on the Alliance side).

Entente is a term used to describe a friendly understanding or agreement, particularly between governments or powers for cooperative action or policies. The word originates from French, meaning understanding or agreement.

The immediate catalyst to the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary in June 1914, which led to a series of diplomatic crises, the so called July Crisis.

Franz Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria-Este, was a member of the imperial Habsburg dynasty and heir presumptive to the Austro-Hungarian throne. Ferdinand was born on December 18, 1863, in Graz, Austria.

In August, the escalated conflict lead to Germany’s invasion of Belgium and France, marking the beginning of the war. The Schleiffen Plan was Germany’s plan to quickly defeat France in the west before turning to face Russia in the east.

The plan involved a massive right-wing enveloping movement through Belgium and northern France, aiming to encircle and defeat the French army quickly. German forces were to sweep through Belgium, bypassing French fortifications along the Franco-German border (the Maginot Line).

The plan was designed to be executed rapidly, with the goal of capturing Paris and defeating France within six weeks. This timeframe was based on the assumption that Russia would take longer to mobilize its forces.

Stuck in the Mud (1914-1916)

The war began with rapid movements, but by late 1914, it transitioned into trench warfare. The years to come marked a period of intense and grueling combat, primarily characterized by the establishment and expansion of trench warfare from the English Channel to the Swiss border. These years were pivotal in shaping the nature of the conflict and underscored the brutality and stalemate of trench warfare.

The First Battle of Ypres (October to November 1914) exemplified this, where German attempts to break through the Allied lines were thwarted, resulting in massive casualties and setting the tone for the trench-bound conflict.

The year 1915 was marked by continued stalemate along the Western Front. Both sides attempted numerous offensives, but these typically resulted in minimal territorial gains with disproportionate losses. The nature of trench warfare led to horrendous living conditions, characterized by mud, rats, lice, and rampant disease alongside the constant threat of death from artillery and sniper fire.

In 1916, the war escalated further with two of the most devastating battles of the conflict. First the Battle of Verdun (February to December 1916) initiated by the Germans. It became a symbol of national resolve for France and one of the longest and bloodiest engagements of the war. The battle emphasized attrition warfare, with both sides suffering hundreds of thousands of casualties. Later the same year the battle of the Somme (July to November 1916) was launched by the British and French to relieve pressure on the French at Verdun, it aimed at breaking through German defenses. The first day of the Somme remains one of the bloodiest in British military history, with about 57,000 British casualties alone. The battle showcased the futility of frontal assaults against fortified positions and introduced new technologies like the tank.

These years encapsulated the grim realities of modern, industrialized warfare, where human lives were expendable in the face of strategic stalemates and where the horror of war was expressed not just in battles but in the enduring suffering of those stationed at the front. The period was marked by a profound transformation in military tactics and technologies, alongside an ever-growing list of casualties, fundamentally altering perceptions of war in the contemporary world.

Eastern Front and Other Theaters (1914-1916)

The Eastern Front extended from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea. Key players were Russia on one side and Germany and Austria-Hungary on the other. The fighting here was characterized by more movement, partly due to the longer front and less dense troop concentrations. Significant battles included the Battle of Tannenberg (August 1914), where the Germans decisively defeated the Russian Second Army, and the Brusilov Offensive (June 1916), a major Russian assault that inflicted heavy casualties on Austro-Hungarian forces but at a great cost to both manpower and material for Russia.

Italy entered the war on the side of the British and French forces in 1915, turning its border with Austria-Hungary into an active front. The terrain here was dominated by mountainous regions, making the fighting conditions particularly harsh. The series of twelve battles along the Isonzo River began in 1915 and continued until 1917. These battles were characterized by intense alpine warfare and were primarily aimed at breaking through the Austro-Hungarian lines.

The Balkan Front was complex due to the involvement of numerous smaller nations. Serbia bore the brunt of the initial Austro-Hungarian offensive in 1914, managing to repel the invaders initially. However, a combined offensive by German, Austro-Hungarian, and Bulgarian forces in 1915 led to the conquest of Serbia. Following this, the front shifted to encompass Greece, where Allied forces landed.

The Middle East became a significant theater of war, highlighted by the British campaigns against the Ottoman Empire. Key events include the defense of the Suez Canal against Ottoman attacks and the disastrous Gallipoli Campaign (April 1915-January 1916), intended to secure a sea route for the Allies to Russia and knock the Ottomans out of the war.

The War at Sea (1914-1918)

The War at Sea was dominated by efforts to control shipping lanes, enforce blockades, and engagement in naval warfare that ranged from large fleet actions to submarine warfare. Key aspects of the War at Sea during this period include British naval dominance and blockade of Germany, technological and tactical development and impact on colonial theatres.

The War at Sea fundamentally altered naval strategy, showcasing the crucial role of naval power in modern warfare. The outcomes of naval engagements and the use of blockades and submarines had direct and significant impacts on the land war and the overall duration and conditions of the peace that followed.

The Battle of Jutland (May 1916) was the largest naval battle of the war, near the coast of Denmark’s Jutland Peninsula. It involved the British Grand Fleet, under Admiral Sir John Jellicoe, and the German High Seas Fleet, under Vice Admiral Reinhard Scheer.

The battle was tactically inconclusive. Both sides claimed victory: the British because they maintained control of the North Sea and continued their blockade of Germany, and the Germans because they had inflicted heavier ship and personnel losses on the British. Strategically, however, the battle reinforced British naval dominance. The German High Seas Fleet remained largely inactive for the rest of the war, focusing instead on submarine warfare. The British continued their effective blockade, contributing to the economic hardship in Germany. In terms of losses, the British lost 14 ships and suffered over 6,000 casualties, while the Germans lost 11 ships with over 2,500 casualties.

Final Phases (1917-1918)

The years 1917 and 1918 were marked by dramatic shifts in the global balance of power, major military campaigns, and political developments. These years ultimately led to the end of the war. One event was the Zimmermann Telegram (1917), Germany’s proposal to Mexico to join the war against the U.S.

The Zimmermann Telegram was a secret diplomatic communication sent by Germany to Mexico. It was named after Arthur Zimmermann, who was the German Foreign Minister at the time it was sent. It proposed a military alliance between Germany and Mexico if the United States entered the war against Germany. Germany promised Mexico the territories of Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona if Mexico declared war on the U.S. The interception and decoding of the telegram by British intelligence in 1917 greatly influenced the U.S. decision to enter World War I.

Another important aspect was the unrestricted submarine warfare by Germany in an attempt to starve Britain into surrendering. This decision would prove critical in drawing the United States into the war.

In March 1917, the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II during the February Revolution led to the establishment of a provisional government in Russia. Later, in November, the Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, seized power in the October Revolution, leading to Russia’s withdrawal from the war.

Several brutal battles were fought, among them The Third Battle of Ypres (Passchendaele), The Battle of Camrai (with the first large-scale effective use of tanks), The Spring Offensive, and The Hundred Days Offensive.

The European continent were also hit by the 1918 flu pandemic, also referred to as the Spanish flu.

On November 11, 1918, Germany signed an armistice agreement with the Allies, effectively ending World War I. The terms were heavily influenced by the Allies, leading to significant territorial, military, and financial concessions by Germany.

Peace Settlements

The Treaty of Versailles of 1919 was the peace treaty that ended the state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers.

The Treaty of Versailles was signed on June 28, 1919, in Versailles, France. It was one of the treaties that emerged from the Paris Peace Conference and specifically dealt with Germany.
The treaty imposed harsh penalties on Germany, including territorial losses, disarmament, and reparations for war damages. The treaty's harsh terms are often cited as contributing to the economic and political instability in Germany, paving the way for World War II.

League of Nations was established in the hope of preventing future conflicts. It was an international organization founded on January 10, 1920, as a result of the Treaty of Versailles. It was the first worldwide intergovernmental organization whose primary mission was to maintain world peace and prevent future conflicts. The League was headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, and had 58 member states at its peak. Key principles of the League included collective security, disarmament, and the peaceful resolution of disputes through negotiation and diplomacy. Despite its ideals, the League faced challenges, including the absence of major powers like the United States and the Soviet Union. The League’s failure to prevent World War II and its dissolution in 1946 led to the creation of the United Nations in 1945, which was intended to be a more effective successor.